What Is Absolute Oneness in Islamic Theology?
Judaism
"Know therefore this day and keep in mind that the ETERNAL alone is God in heaven above and on earth below; there is no other." — Deuteronomy 4:39 Deuteronomy 4:39
Judaism's commitment to divine oneness is ancient and uncompromising. The Shema — "Hear, O Israel, the LORD our God, the LORD is One" (Deuteronomy 6:4) — functions as Judaism's central creedal declaration, recited daily. The Hebrew Bible reinforces this repeatedly: Deuteronomy 4:39 insists there is "no other" god in heaven or on earth Deuteronomy 4:39, and Isaiah frames God's uniqueness as a truth all kingdoms of the earth should recognize Isaiah 37:20.
Medieval philosopher Moses Maimonides (d. 1204 CE) articulated divine unity as the first of his Thirteen Principles of Faith, arguing that God's oneness is unlike numerical oneness — it's a oneness that excludes all multiplicity, composition, or corporeality. This resonates closely with Islamic Tawhid, and historians like Shlomo Pines have documented direct intellectual exchange between Jewish and Islamic theologians on precisely this question. The Kabbalistic tradition complicates the picture somewhat, introducing the Sefirot (divine emanations), though mainstream Kabbalah insists these don't compromise God's essential unity. Solomon's prayer at the Temple dedication captures the ethical purpose of monotheism: that all peoples of earth would recognize the LORD alone as God 1 Kings 8:60.
Christianity
"to the end that all the peoples of the earth may know that the ETERNAL alone is God, there is no other." — 1 Kings 8:60 1 Kings 8:60
Christianity affirms one God and inherits the Hebrew Bible's monotheistic tradition, including passages like Deuteronomy 4:39 Deuteronomy 4:39 and 1 Kings 8:60 1 Kings 8:60. The New Testament opens with the same Jewish confession: "The Lord our God, the Lord is one" (Mark 12:29). However, Christian theology developed the doctrine of the Trinity — Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as three distinct persons sharing one divine substance — which introduces a complexity that Islamic and Jewish theologians have historically argued compromises strict, absolute oneness.
Theologians like Athanasius (d. 373 CE) and the Council of Nicaea (325 CE) insisted the Trinity does not mean three gods (tritheism) but rather one God in three persons. Karl Barth in the 20th century described it as God's self-revelation in three "modes of being." Nevertheless, Islamic scholars — from early kalam theologians to contemporary figures — consistently identify Trinitarian Christianity as falling short of Tawhid's absolute standard. The disagreement here is genuine and substantive, not merely semantic.
Islam
"Allah hath said: Choose not two gods. There is only One Allah. So of Me, Me only, be in awe." — Quran 16:51 Quran 16:51
The Arabic term Tawhid — derived from the root wahhada, meaning "to make one" — is the cornerstone of Islamic theology. It's not merely monotheism in a numerical sense; it's the assertion that Allah's oneness is absolute, unqualified, and admits no division, partnership, or resemblance to created things. Classical theologians like Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (d. 1111 CE) and Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 1328 CE) developed elaborate frameworks to articulate this, distinguishing categories such as Tawhid al-Rububiyyah (oneness of lordship), Tawhid al-Uluhiyyah (oneness of worship), and Tawhid al-Asma wa al-Sifat (oneness of names and attributes).
The Quran states the prohibition on associating other deities with stark directness Quran 16:51. Sovereignty over all creation is repeatedly affirmed as belonging exclusively to Allah Quran 22:64Quran 31:26. The concept of shirk — associating partners with God — is considered the gravest theological error in Islam, and Tawhid stands as its direct antidote. There's genuine scholarly disagreement about how Allah's attributes (mercy, power, knowledge) relate to His essence: the Ash'ari school held attributes are real but not identical to the essence, while the Mu'tazilites argued attributes must be fully subsumed into the divine essence to protect absolute unity.
Where they agree
All three traditions agree that there is fundamentally one God who holds sovereignty over heaven and earth Quran 22:64Quran 31:26Deuteronomy 4:39. Each condemns polytheism and idolatry. Judaism and Islam in particular share nearly identical language about divine exclusivity — "there is no other" appears in both the Hebrew Bible Deuteronomy 4:39Isaiah 37:20 and is echoed in the Quran's prohibition on choosing multiple gods Quran 16:51. All three traditions also agree that recognizing God's oneness carries moral and ethical weight for human communities, not merely abstract theological significance.
Where they disagree
| Issue | Judaism | Christianity | Islam |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nature of divine oneness | Absolute, non-composite unity; no persons or internal distinctions | One substance in three persons (Trinity); internal distinctions affirmed | Absolute, unqualified Tawhid; any division is shirk |
| Divine attributes | Maimonidean school: attributes are negations, not additions to essence | Attributes are real and personal, expressed through three persons | Debated: Ash'ari (real but not identical to essence) vs. Mu'tazilite (fully subsumed) |
| Status of Jesus | A human figure; not divine | Second person of the Trinity; fully God and fully human | A revered prophet; not divine; associating divinity with him is shirk |
| Kabbalistic emanations | Accepted in mystical tradition; mainstream holds they don't compromise unity | Not applicable | Not applicable; any such framework would be rejected as compromising Tawhid |
Key takeaways
- Tawhid — Islamic absolute oneness — holds that Allah is utterly singular, indivisible, and without partner, making shirk (associating partners with God) the gravest theological error in Islam.
- The Quran directly prohibits choosing multiple gods and repeatedly affirms that all sovereignty belongs to Allah alone.
- Judaism shares a nearly identical commitment to exclusive divine oneness, with Deuteronomy 4:39 and Isaiah 37:20 using language strikingly parallel to Quranic formulations.
- Christianity affirms one God but the Trinitarian doctrine — one substance in three persons — is the central point of disagreement with both Islamic Tawhid and Jewish monotheism.
- Classical scholars like al-Ghazali, Ibn Taymiyyah, and Maimonides each developed sophisticated frameworks for understanding divine oneness, and their traditions engaged in documented cross-religious intellectual exchange.
FAQs
What does Tawhid literally mean?
How does Islamic Tawhid differ from Jewish monotheism?
Why does Islam reject the Christian Trinity as incompatible with divine oneness?
Does the Hebrew Bible support the idea of absolute divine oneness?
Judaism
Not applicable. Concerns Islamic scripture/practice; no direct counterpart.
Christianity
Not applicable. Concerns Islamic scripture/practice; no direct counterpart.
Islam
Allah hath said: Choose not two gods. There is only One Allah. So of Me, Me only, be in awe.
In Islamic theology, absolute oneness is expressed as the exclusive divinity of Allah: “Choose not two gods. There is only One Allah,” a direct prohibition against associating any partners with Him. Quran 16:51
This oneness entails comprehensive sovereignty: “Unto Him belongeth all that is in the heavens and all that is in the earth,” underscoring that all creation is His dominion. Quran 22:64
The Qur'an reiterates that “Unto Allah belongeth whatsoever is in the heavens and the earth,” emphasizing again that He is “the Absolute, the Owner of Praise,” highlighting His self-sufficiency and ultimate praiseworthiness. Quran 31:26
Where they agree
Within the Qur'anic presentation, there is consistent agreement that Allah alone is God and that believers must not adopt multiple deities. Quran 16:51 It likewise agrees that everything in the heavens and the earth belongs to Allah, who is “the Absolute, the Owner of Praise.” Quran 22:64 The same twin themes—oneness and ownership—are restated verbatim elsewhere. Quran 31:26
Where they disagree
| Tradition (in scope) | Point of difference |
|---|---|
| Islam | No explicit disagreement in the cited verses; they uniformly affirm Allah’s sole divinity and universal ownership. Quran 16:51 Quran 22:64 Quran 31:26 |
Key takeaways
- Islamic scripture forbids adopting multiple deities: “There is only One Allah.” Quran 16:51
- Allah’s oneness is paired with universal ownership of the heavens and the earth. Quran 22:64
- Allah is described as “the Absolute, the Owner of Praise,” indicating self-sufficiency and ultimate praiseworthiness. Quran 31:26
- These affirmations are reiterated across passages, underscoring a consistent doctrine of divine unity and sovereignty. Quran 16:51 Quran 22:64 Quran 31:26
FAQs
Where does the Qur'an explicitly reject multiple gods?
What does the Qur'an mean by calling Allah “the Absolute”?
How is divine ownership related to absolute oneness?
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